Becoming a Teacher in Texas~Vocabulary
Compiled by: Dr. Lewis Gambill, Ph.D.
Active Learning – involve students in decision making. It helps to shift some of the responsibility for learning from the teacher to the student.
Constructivism – According to Kamii's theory says that students construct meaning in their heads while interacting with the environment rather than internalizing information from the outside requires that the students accept more responsibility for their behavior and learning.
Cooperative Learning – Teachers who collaborate with peers are more likely to encourage collaboration among students in their classroom. McLaughlin found that teachers who excel at encouraging students in cooperative learning opportunities tend to be part of a collegial community of fellow educators.
KWL – A excellent strategy for encouraging choice and ownership for all students. Teacher begins by asking the students what they know (K) about the topic, second part of the activity requires that students create a list of things they want (W) to know and learn about the topic, the last part of this activity is having students determine what they have learned (L).
Independent Learner – A student who takes responsibility for their own learning environment. Teachers have the responsibility of teaching the students what they need to know in order for the students to do their work on their own.
Learner-Centered Community – Asking students to identify their expectations for the teacher reinforces the idea that the classroom is learning centered community. This is involving the students by asking the questions that they could answer which might help you (as a teacher) learn what they might want for your classroom.
Metacognition – Active learners learn how to monitor their cognitive activity. This ability to monitor and regulate ones understanding and comprehension of a learning task or to actively think about ones own thinking and learning.
Passive Learners – quiet, non-active learners.
Risk taker/taking – try something new, if it does not work then do not be afraid to tell your students your wrong let them know that everyone makes mistakes.
Routines – students become independent learners momentum and pacing become maintained, dead time is eliminated…
Plan ahead
Begin immediately
Facilitate the handling of materials
Make sure students know what they are to do when work is finished
Reduce # of transitions and interruptions that occur
Have procedures for transition periods
Time management before and after activities
Everyday doings
Schema – All learners store and organize information in their minds in a way that makes sense to them. The results of this organization are cognitive structures known as schema
Student Ownership – assuring that students are active rather than passive learners helps develop this.
Transitions – teachers want to reduce the # of transitions. This means reduce the # of times a student will stop and start another activity.
Transition Orientation – teachers with this involves students in all areas of learning and teaching
Research and developmental psychology
Learning begins with concepts or meaning before incorporating skills
The teachers role is that of facilitator
Transmission-orientation – teachers learning believe that teachers have the major responsibility in making decisions about curriculum, planning, instruction, and evaluation.
Assessment - appraisal process that is ongoing and dynamic. Measures students' skill acquisition, fluency, maintenance, and generalization on a specific set of objectives or lessons.
Evaluation - all means used in schools to formally measure student performance. It includes formal, informal, and observational data collected before, during, and after instruction. Usually used to make curricular and program decisions such as referral for special education or gifted education assessment.
Formal Assessment - norm or criterion-referenced, standardized tests
Informal Assessment - interviews, observations, alternative assessments, curriculum-based assessment.
Validity- Truthfulness of the information. In the case of a test, the test measures what it purports to measure.
Readability- relates to the dependability of information.
Test bias - refers to the fairness of the test.
Formative Data- provides the teacher with feedback about the students progress "along the way" to the end of the instruction or intervention. It is collected before or during instruction and can be used for planning instructional goals and objectives and /or adaptations of instruction.
Summative Data - formal or informal and are intended to be more or less judgments about the student's progress through the curriculum or instructional activities. Its purpose is to summarize how well the student, group of students, or a teacher has performed on a set of learning goals or objectives.
norm-referenced test- a standardized test, that has been created on a clearly defined group called a norm group. It is to see how close the test taker is to a "normal" test taker.
criterion-referenced test - a standardized measure that is used to provide information about a student's mastery level for specific skills or content.
Standardized test- usually commercially generated and given to particular groups or individual students.
Standard Score and Percentile Group - compare an individual student's performance with that of his or her norm group.
Age or Grade Equivalent Scores - A type of scoring which compares students to other students in their grade or age. This reporting that is often misleading because it assumes that every student of a certain age has developed skill levels or has received uniform instruction.
Curriculum-based assessment - the process that determines a student's instructional needs within the classroom curriculum.
Teacher-made test: most common way used to access student progress in a specific content area.
Domain- common area
Observational Data- data that is collected by simply observing. It is very important, but the reliability and validity of such data should always be highly suspect. It should never be used as the sole source for making decisions about students or instructional techniques because such data typically have a high degree of bias.
Portfolio - informal alternative assessment tool. A summative evaluation of student work over an extended period of time. It tells a story of a student's effort, progress, or achievement for a certain time period. A structured collection that demonstrates student progress.
Domain I : Understanding Learners
Competency 2 : The teacher considers environmental factors that may affect learning in designing a supportive and responsive classroom community that promotes all students' learning and self-esteem.
Environmental factors – these include factors within the classroom (e.g., teaching methods, equipment and supplies, teacher-student interactions, etc.) and what students bring with them (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, experiences, clothing choices, etc.). By understanding environmental factors that affect students, the teacher can create a classroom environment that helps counter the negative influences that students may have experienced or may be presently experiencing.
Classroom environment – a setting in which classroom members (teacher and students) reside for the purpose of learning. This environment includes all the factors or influences that impact the classroom members and all the interactions of members of the classroom and how these interactions affect the students. An examination of some of these environmental factors will help the teacher become more knowledgeable on how to create a classroom environment that is supportive, fun, motivating, and full of learning.
Perception – “how the world is seen through each individual's eyes.” A student's individual perception certainly impacts the learning experience in numerous ways. This individual perception is often refereed to as selective perception. We see selectively as individuals because each of us has had hundred of difference experiences that have brought us to this moment in time, as have our students. Teachers must remember that a student's perception is reality to that student. To be an effective teacher, one must understand that each student comes to the classroom with a different set of perceptions and that many of these perceptions can be distorted.
Culture – consists of behaviors absorbed or learned from a group. In education, we often refer to culture as students' behaviors learned in their lives outside of school. Cultural experiences affect the way students behave, how they think, how they treat others, and how they treat themselves. A teacher cannot understand his or her classroom without making reference to the cultural and personal backgrounds of all the students and examining his or her own cultural baggage as well.
Stereotypes – preconceived notions of how individuals from certain groups think, feel, and act. As classroom members, students rapidly turn for support to other students they believe share their own stereotypes. Stereotypes can be based on family background, race, ethnic background, religion, parental occupation, grades, athleticism, hobbies, economic status, or any number of other factors. Teachers must keep in mind that students are complex, unique individuals – no two are the same! It is the teacher's job to not only enjoy this uniqueness, but to teach students to do the same.
Transactional analysis – According to transactional analysis, all of our experiences in life, starting as infants, contribute to the development of our concept of self-worth and assist us in formulating a sense of worth of others. Napier and Gershenfeld (1999) describe our development of self-worth this way:
We did this by crystallizing our experiences and making decisions about the kind of life we would have (sad, happy); what parts we would play (strong hero, loner); and how we would act out the parts of our life scripts (adventurously, in fear, slowly, with permission). (p.6)
Life Position – For example, a person who is continuously praised as a child begins to see him or herself as worthy of praise. A person who is ridiculed frequently as a child may see him or herself as unintelligent, with little to offer. It is through these experiences that we form a life script or a life position. As we grow older, we become a self-fulfilling prophecy – continuing to reinforce what we learned about ourselves as children. The students who enter the classroom will have life positions already established. Some students, based on the way they have been treated in life, will already feel they are gong to fail at school. A teacher's job is to help such students find a way to overcome and redefine that life position. It is clear how a life position can impact learning in the classroom and it is also evident that, as a part of the many experiences that students will have in the classroom, the teacher can make a difference – positively or negatively.
Individual security – When students enter a new classroom group, they often experience a lack of individual security that results in anxiety. These may be mild to extreme. When experiencing anxiety, students feel insecure about themselves. In this state of anxiety, students experience self-doubt about the way others perceive them. As a result, their behavior is based on these feelings. Some students may withdraw while others may become loud and rambunctious. Other students may lash out (as if cornered). When individuals join a group, they change. A student's in-group behavior may differ from his or her out-of-group behavior; peer pressure and group membership can impact students. A teacher should consider the classroom to be a group that students join and, as the leader of that group, create an environment that makes students want to have membership.
Conflict – Effective teachers must understand conflict and its role in the classroom and school. Most people see conflict as purely negative, which is not always the case. What is always true, however, is that conflict does not manage itself. Students will bring conflict into the classroom that originated outside the classroom. Some conflict will originate within the classroom. Wherever it originates, conflict has the potential to negatively or positively impact classroom learning, depending on how it is dealt with. In order for a teacher to effectively deal with conflict and to teach students to do the same the teacher must have skills in managing conflict. Teachers develop these skills by (1) understanding conflict contaminants, (2) identifying types of conflict, and (3) implementing appropriate conflict resolution strategies.
Conflict contaminants – conditions in which negative conflict grows and thrives. These are conditions that have a negative effect on classroom learning.
Negativism--Students get into more conflict when negativity is predominant in the classroom. Teachers must promote a positive classroom environment with students. They achieve this by being accepting, welcoming, and encouraging to students. A positive classroom environment is one in which the teacher has made allowances for different personalities and learning styles and does not play favorites. Teachers should leave sarcasm out of the school environment.
Unrealistic Expectations--If teachers have unrealistic expectations of students, they are likely to experience failure. A teacher's job is to help students find success in academic, social, and mental ways. Teachers need to provide opportunities for each student to succeed at small tasks before moving him or her to more complex tasks. In addition, teachers should build in opportunities for success throughout longer projects to encourage students to continue working and learning. Effective teachers stop and celebrate successes because they know that success breeds success.
Poor Communication Skills--When poor communication exists between students, between the teacher and students, or between the teacher and parents or administration, conflict will likely occur. Without effective communication, teachers leave their classrooms open to rumors, incorrect information, and missed information. They also miss opportunities to get to know their students. Teachers who do not get to know their students cannot effectively meet students' individual needs. Use of various types of delivery systems (e.g., written and oral) and frequent feedback (e.g., oral, written, and/or nonverbal) will help to ensure that students interpret the teacher's messages in the way he or she intends for the messages to be interpreted.
Personal Stressors--Personal stressors are personal conditions that teachers and students experience, such as health problems, lack of sleep, financial difficulties, improper nutrition, pregnancy, or lack of organizational or social skills. All these stressors have the potential to affect student learning and the classroom climate as well as promoting conditions for conflict. A teacher may be limited on what he or she can do with many of these stressors; however, seeking the help of school administration, community services, or counselors can assist teachers in getting help for students. The classroom teacher is generally the first personal to note and report these stressors because of his or her daily contact with students.
Savior Syndrome--Some teachers have a condition known as the savior syndrome. These are teachers who, though well-meaning, try to fix every student problem. This often gets teachers into conflict situations. Teachers who make choices for students – who give them the answers to all their questions and problems – become accountable for the consequences of those choices. A good rule of thumb to bear in mind is that teachers want students to depend on them, not to become dependent upon them.
Jumping to Conclusions--Students, parents, and teachers alike are guilty of jumping to conclusions before getting all the necessary information to make a judgment or decision. Teachers must try to avoid jumping to conclusions by always getting the facts before saying or doing anything.
Lack of Support and Trust--Students need to feel supported in the classroom. Students who feel supported show signs of increased creativity, communication, and personal growth. Teachers can attend school activities in which their students are involved and, at the first opportunity, praise the involved students and acknowledge their efforts in the activities. Teachers can engage students in conversations about topics that interest them, be available to answer questions when students need it, gear classroom teaching to include all the learning styles of the students, and use a tremendous amount of positive reinforcement and encouragement.
Preference Protection--This is the protection of one's preferred way of doing something. It is often exemplified by the statement, “It is my way or the highway.” Teachers must spend more time thinking about where they want their students to go academically, and less time demanding that there is only one way to get there. Tunnel vision occurs when a teacher feels that his or her way is the only way. This will limit student creativity and success. The goal is for students to learn – not for all of them to learn in the same way.
Types of Conflict – Teachers must accept the fact that conflict is a necessary and inevitable part of life in the classroom. They must also be able to identify the types of conflict that occur in the classroom so that they can properly manage them. By managing the conflict, we become stronger people. Whether or not we want to acknowledge it, we all need conflict to challenge and enrich our lives.
Value Conflict--Value conflict is the most difficult type of conflict to resolve because it deals with a person's individual beliefs, values, or convictions (deep-seated religious, moral, or political beliefs that a student has carried over time)
Tangible Conflict--Tangible conflict is conflict over resources. These may include time, money, supplies, parking spaces, and classroom space and location. For students, these resources can also be the type of car they drive and the clothes they wear (or want to drive or wear). When resources decline, tangible conflict increases.
Interpersonal Conflict--This is often seen in the conflict between student “cliques” based on academics, sports, music, or other common interests. Interpersonal conflict results when an individual or group has feeling of dislike toward another individual or group.
Territorial Conflict--This occurs as the result of territorial invasions, or as the result of someone expecting another to expand his or her present territory or responsibility. (sharing supplies, not pulling your weight in group work)
Perceptual Conflict--Teachers and students often jump to conclusions about the motives and goals of others. Most perceptual conflicts occur because the conflicting parties do not have the facts.
Conflict Resolution Strategies – After identifying one or more of the five types of conflict (value, tangible, interpersonal, territorial, or perceptual), the teacher must next know what strategies to utilize to resolve the conflict.
Using Conciliatory Gestures--This can be as simple as a smile or kind word, or it can be as complex as a concession. Conciliation is the process whereby one side of the conflict initiates a gesture of good faith in the hope that the other party will reciprocate with a similar type of gesture.
Avoidance--This strategy is overused by students and adults. Ignored conflict often mushrooms into deeper conflict or other types of conflict.
Altering the Group Structure--This may mean changing the physical space in order to separate two conflicting students, changing a student's schedule, or even changing a teacher's job responsibilities.
Appealing to a Higher Belief or Value--Sometimes focusing on an overarching value, belief, or goal will help resolve conflict. For example, two teachers involved in an interpersonal conflict may decide to put their differences aside in order to do what is best for students.
“I Need You and You Need Me” Strategy--This strategy helps individuals to understand how two conflicting students or student groups may have resources that, when shared, will help each side to achieve its own goals and interests. In the classroom this strategy helps students to realize the value of others.
Role Clarification--A teacher can use role clarification as a resolution strategy by having each student define his or her responsibilities in the group, then having the students define the responsibilities of others in the groups, comparing all the responses. The teacher will be able to see where role confusion is occurring.
Direct Order--With a direct order, there is no input sought from the conflicting students. And we know that without input, most conflicts will not be completely resolved and will reappear.
Communication--To determine if a message has been received and interpreted in the manner intended, one must have feedback from the receiver or receivers of one's message. (have receiver restate the message verbally or in written form)
Seeking Additional Information--Many students have become angry or upset over something that they thought was said or done, but when the truth was known, the perceived event never occurred or occurred under conditions that were acceptable.
Outside Intervention--This means involving a third party who can help negotiate, arbitrate, or just offer wise council with regard to the conflict.
Group Dynamics Interventions--A group dynamics intervention is a strategy that includes a wide variety of programs and events, for example, multicultural awareness projects, personality inventories, challenge courses, retreats, trust-building exercises, team-building exercises, and cooperative learning experiences.
Compromise--This is a strategy that allows the conflicting students or groups of students to meet halfway. Each side gives up part of what he or she wants in order to resolve the issue.
Expanding or Developing New Resources Resources--can be defined as materials, time, territory, personnel, information, or influence. This issue can be resolved by expanding the current resources or by developing new resources.
Democratic Vote--With this strategy, a vote is taken of all the students or members of the conflict. The vote can be a written vote, a raised-hand vote, or verbal vote.
Other Conflict Resolution Strategies--An effective teacher develops additional strategies to deal with each individual in the class. For example, humor, when used appropriately, can be used to calm a stressful or highly emotional situation. Teachers should think back to situations of conflict in their own lives.
Needs – A need is a requirement for the well-being of an individual We can best understand these needs by looking at Maslow's hierarch of needs (1954). According to Maslow , individuals pass through certain developmental stages. A key aspect of the model is the hierarchical nature of the needs. The lower the needs in the hierarchy, the more fundamental they are and the more a person will tend to abandon the higher needs in order to pay attention to sufficiently meeting the lower needs. For example, when we are ill, we care little for what others think about us: all we want is to get better.
The five needs
Physiological needs are to do with the maintenance of the human body. If we are unwell, then little else matters until we recover.
Safety needs are about putting a roof over our heads and keeping us from harm. If we are rich, strong and powerful, or have good friends, we can make ourselves safe.
Belonging needs introduce our tribal nature. If we are helpful and kind to others they will want us as friends.
Esteem needs are for a higher position within a group. If people respect us, we have greater power. Self-esteem is a condition in which one has confidence and satisfactory with oneself.
Self-actualization needs are to 'become what we are capable of becoming', which would our greatest achievement. A major implication of Maslow's hierarchy applied to the classroom is that teachers must make sure that the lower-level needs of students are satisfied so that they are more likely to function at higher levels. Students will be better learners if they are physically comfortable, feel safe, feel like they belong and are loved, and, as a result, experience self-esteem.
Based on Maslow's work, Biehler provided the following suggestions for meeting student needs: Do everything possible to satisfy the deficiency needs – physiological, safety, belongingness, and esteem. Enhance the attractions and minimize the dangers of growth choices (if you establish situations in which students feel pressure, tension, or anxiety, students will choose safety and do their best to remain uninvolved; if you minimize the risks and make learning seem exciting, even the less secure student will want to join in). Direct learning experiences toward feelings of success in an effort to encourage a realistic level of aspiration, an orientation toward achievement, and a positive self-concept. Be alert to the damaging impact of excessive competition. For students who need it, encourage the development of a desire to achieve. Take advantage of natural interest, try to create new one, and encourage learning for its own sake. When appropriate, permit and encourage students to direct their own learning.
Bullying – often thought of as violent behavior, but in reality, it certainly can consist of or become a precursor to violent behaviors. Bullying can have negative consequences for the general school climate and the right of students to learn in a safe environment without far. It consists of such behaviors as hitting, threatening, teasing, taunting, spreading rumors, enforcing social isolation, and stealing. Bullies tend to be students who desire to feel powerful and in control. They often come from homes where physical punishment is used and where parental involvement and warmth are lacking. Students who are victims of bullying are typically anxious, insecure, cautious, and suffer from low self-esteem, rarely defending themselves or retaliating when confronted by students who bully them. Teachers should watch for symptoms of bullying, such as withdrawal, evidence of physical abuse, a drop in grades, torn clothes, or needing extra money or supplies. And, most importantly, teachers must make sure they do not bully students themselves – physically or verbally.
Characteristics found in youth who have caused school-associated violent deaths:
Has a history of tantrums and uncontrollable angry outbursts.
Characteristically resorts to name calling, cursing or abusive language.
Habitually makes violent threats when angry.
Has previously brought a weapon to school
Has a background of serious disciplinary problems at school and in the community.
Has a background of drug, alcohol or other substance abuse or dependency.
Is on the fringe of his/her peer group with few or no close friends.
Is preoccupied with weapons, explosives or other incendiary devices.
Has previously been truant, suspended or expelled from school.
Displays cruelty to animals.
Has little or no supervision and support from parents or a caring adult.
Has witnessed or been a victim of abuse or neglect in the home.
Has been bullied and/or bullies or intimidates peers or younger children.
Tends to blame others for difficulties and problems s/he causes her/himself.
Consistently prefers TV shows, movies or music expressing violent themes and acts.
Prefers reading materials dealing with violent themes, rituals and abuse.
Reflects anger, frustration and the dark side of life in school essays or writing projects.
Is involved with a gang or an antisocial group on the fringe of peer acceptance.
Is often depressed and/or has significant mood swings.
Has threatened or attempted suicide.
Warning Signs of Suicidal Behavior
Threatening to hurt or kill oneself or talking about wanting to hurt or kill oneself
Looking for ways to kill oneself by seeking access to firearms, pills, or other means
Talking or writing about death, dying, or suicide when these actions are out of the ordinary for the person
Feeling hopeless
Feeling rage or uncontrolled anger or seeking revenge
Acting reckless or engaging in risky activities - seemingly without thinking
Feeling trapped-like there's no way out
Increasing alcohol or drug use
Withdrawing from friends, family, and society
Feeling anxious, agitated, or unable to sleep or sleeping all the time
Experiencing dramatic mood changes
Seeing no reason for living or having no sense of purpose in life
Metacognitive , metacognition - refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.) itself. Metacognition can be divided into two types of knowledge: explicit, conscious, factual knowledge; and implicit, unconscious, procedural knowledge. The ability to think about thinking is unique to sentient species and indeed is one of the definitions of sentience.
Modeling – teaching by demonstration of the skill or behavior
Intrinsic motivation – causes people to engage in an activity for its own sake. A hobby is a typical example.
Extrinsic motivation – used to motivate employees: Payments, rewards, control, or punishments.
Negative reinforcer - In Negative Reinforcement a particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of the stopping or avoiding of a negative condition. Examples: Broken record technique, finish work before being able to go to recess, wait quietly in line before starting to lunch
Positive reinforcer – behavior encouraged by reward. Examples: Praise, public recognition, giving tangibles, positive body language, extra privileges
Reinforcement theory – theory that conceptualized motivation entirely in terms of observable behavior; used in academic settings substantially.
Resilient, resiliency - Marked by the ability to recover readily, as from misfortune.
Rote learning - Learning or memorization by repetition, often without an understanding of the reasoning or relationships involved in the material that is learned.
Self-motivated, self-motivation – motivation from within oneself
Self-efficacy – an individual's estimate or personal judgment of his or her own ability to succeed in reaching a specific goal, e.g., quitting smoking or losing weight or a more general goal, e.g., continuing to remain at a prescribed weight level.
Social – cognitive theory – children and adolescents do not need to personally experience reinforcement and punishment to have behaviors manifested.
Student empowerment – increasing student strength through learner-centered instruction so that the students feel “empowered” in their learning processes and are more likely to take a vested interest in their work.
Teacher- centered – “old school,” in opposition to learner centered (w/ needs and interests of learners in mind); teacher is a dispenser of knowledge
Vicarious learning – students learn by seeing others rewarded or punished for certain behaviors
Development – refers to systematic, lasting changes that take place over the course of the human life span.
Physical Development – changes in the human body, which depend largely on genes
Cognitive Development – changes in mental processes
Personal Development – development in areas of self-concept and emotions
Social Development – This occurs as humans interact with others.
Moral Development – development in the sense of right and wrong
Developmentally Appropriate – Developmentally appropriate instruction exists if the teacher is aware of the range of possible developmental levels and the characteristics that students exhibit in these levels. The teacher must also provide instruction in a way that learning experiences lead to optimal development for each child.
Readiness – Assessing student readiness for various learning experiences is important. Readiness occurs when the student is capable.
Maturation – development that takes place as a result of internally determined change
Piaget's stages of development – Piaget suggests specific differences in the way children's thinking evolves as they develop. Piaget's focus is on the individual's construction of meaning through activity.
Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years) – Humans form initial schema from physical interactions with the objects and people around them. Their primary accomplishments during this stage include the following: understanding that objects exist even when not in sight or sound range, imitation of the actions of others, combination of simple actions into more complex routines, the ability to reverse an action, and evidence of goal-directed or intentional behaviors tied to physical actions.
Preoperational (2 years – 7 years) – Students move from the development of schemata that are tied to physical actions to actions that are carried out mentally by thinking them through. When these students are confronted with a problem, they tend to focus on a single aspect of the situation and ignore other aspects. They may be able to think operations through in one direction but cannot mentally reverse the operations. These students are considered egocentric in that they are unable to view situations from the perspectives of others. These students also tend to play side-by-side in groups.
Concrete Operational (7 years – 11 years) – Students exhibit characteristics of a concrete operational stage of cognitive development. They can now perform mental experiments, but their operations are constrained by what they have actually experienced. When confronted with a task or problem, they can consider more than one aspect of the task simultaneously and solve hands-on problems logically. They can group objects according to characteristics that the objects have in common as well as arrange objects in an orderly fashion using a quantitative dimension such as size. The students possess the realization that a change in appearance of an object does not necessarily change the characteristics of the object. Development of conservation requires three other reasoning skills acquired during this stage: (1) identity – when nothing is added or subtracted, the material is not changed; (2) compensation – a change in one dimension or direction can be balanced by a change in another dimension or direction; and (3) reversibility – the ability to conjecture what would happen if an action were reversed or “undone.”
Formal Operational (11 years – adult) – These students have the ability to deal with abstract concepts. They acquire the ability to move beyond concrete operations and solve abstract problems containing a number of variables logically. They develop hypothetico -deductive reasoning – the ability to consider a hypothetical situation and hypothesize implications through use of logical reasoning. These students tend to focus on their own beliefs and ideas and assume that everyone else is as interested in them as they are. However, unlike the egocentrism characteristic of preoperational thinkers, these students are capable of perceiving situations from different viewpoints.
Organization – This is the constant combination and arrangement of actions and thoughts into systems or structures.
Disequilibrium – This is dissonance that occurs when we perceive that the information we receive from interaction with the environment is not consistent with our prior representation of events or objects.
Equilibration – This is the constant search for a balance between what we know and what we are learning through activity or social experiences.
Adaptation – the adjustment of existing knowledge structures through the two processes of assimilation and accommodation
Accommodation – This is when we change our existing structure to accommodate new information. We do this in order to alleviate the incongruity between what we know and conflicting new information.
Assimilation – This is when we incorporate new knowledge into our existing knowledge.
Schema – Piaget said that humans innately engage in the constant combination and arrangement of actions and thoughts into systems or structures. He called these systems and structures schemata. (Schemata is the plural form of schema.)
Information processing capacity – The development of cognitive processes occurs through more gradual processes involving increasing capability and capacity of attention, learning strategies, knowledge, and metacognition . This theory states that children use more complex strategies as they increase in age and knowledge, and they use them more effectively. This theory also states that younger children are more distractible than older children and less purposive in their goals of learning.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory – Vygotsky emphasizes the role of social interaction and the development of language in cognitive development.
Guided participation – This term describes the process a teacher might use when providing scaffolding within a student's zone of proximal development. For example, a child may not be able to generate the causes of the Civil War on her own after reading a chapter in a book, but if the teacher provided a concept map with some of the causes, the child may be able to fill in the remainder.
Zone of proximal development – This is the difference between the intellectual tasks that students can perform alone and those that they can perform with the assistance of an adult or a more skilled peer.
Scaffolding – This is the appropriate guidance and support from adults or peers that is gradually withdrawn as student competence improves.
Private Speech – self-talk that is a critical factor in guiding and monitoring the thinking and problem solving of young children
Stages of Psychosocial Development – the sum of personal development, social development, and moral development
Initiative (3 years – 6 years) – Children test their independence and explore their environment as they master language, cognitive, and social skills. If children are provided with opportunities to try out new behaviors and are successful, they develop initiative. If these attempts are limited or punished too frequently, children may develop a sense of guilt and become overly dependent on adults.
Industry (6 years – 12 years) – Children engage in attempts to develop the academic and social skills and abilities needed for successful societal and social interaction. When they see themselves as incompetent in dealing with social situations and with their peers, a sense of inferiority or worthlessness may emerge.
Identity (12 years – 18 years) – Students are searching for self-identity, and students are trying out different roles. Students' self-esteem may drop during the onset of this stage, particularly for females. Students who encounter nonsupportive environments may develop a poor definition of their occupational, sexual, or moral identities. Four identity statuses can result from this stage. Identity achievement describes those students who have successfully resolved their identity. Identity diffusion is characterized by a lack of direction. Identity foreclosure suggests that adolescents have committed to an identity but have not given it much thought. Moratorium describes the status characterized by the active search for identity by students who are currently undergoing identity crisis.
Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning – Kohlberg's theory had three levels of moral reasoning.
Preconventional Stage – Students choose a course of action because they will receive certain rewards or punishments for doing so.
Conventional Stage – Students focus on gaining approval of others as a result of a particular course of action.
Postconventional Stage – This level reflects moral decisions in light of the interests of the majority and the rights of the individual and moves in its last stage to establishment of a personal code of ethics.
Family Diversity – (a) diversity of cultural background, (b) differences in family characteristics and structure, (c) circumstances or situational differences. Which result in diverse languages, customs, attitudes, behaviors, and values.
Home-school relationships – All interactions between school and home that support student achievement. Some benefits include:
Improved grades
Improved test scores
Improved attitudes improved behavior
More completed homework
More engagement in classroom learning activities
Higher attendance rates
Reduced suspension rates
Lower dropout rates
Parent-teacher partnerships – Synonymous to home-school relationships. All interactions between teacher and parent that support student achievement.
Technical jargon – terms and acronyms unfamiliar to those outside a profession (teaching profession in this case). Avoid using when in conferences with parents.
Types of involvement--Aids a school expand its focus to an integrated view of involvement.
Basic Obligations of Parenting – Schools offer workshops on this topic such as guidance and discipline, parent education courses, or family support relative to health and nutrition issues.
Communications – Open and effective two-way communication between families and schools such as focus groups, surveys, telephone calls, and personalized notes to parents.
Volunteering – Family participation in assemblies or functions as well as provide classroom or school assistance.
Learning Activities at Home – Families are involved in curriculum decisions or participate in interactive homework assignments. They can also be provided information and ideas on how to motivate, encourage and monitor school related activities. Families can also be offered refresher courses to help them assist with homework.
Decision Making and Advocacy – Families are included in school decisions through activities such as committees, site-based management teams, and district task forces.
Community Collaboration – Resources and services from the community are identified to strengthen the school program, family practices, and student growth. Families are given information on community programs and opportunities to serve in the community.
At-risk factors – Characteristics of school aged children that produce underachievement in academics.
School-community relationships – In Competency 14 it explains how the teacher understands how the school relates to the larger community and knows strategies for making interactions between school and community mutually supportive and beneficial. The five basic skills in understanding the school -community relationship are as follows:
· Recognizing challenges facing today's communities
· Learning about the school's community
· Effectively communicating with the school's community
· Connecting with the community in learning experiences
· Developing children's sense of responsibility for improving their communities.
Demographic characteristics – Teachers need to know about the community they serve such as their demographic characteristics such as educational attainment, age, gender occupational patterns, race, ethnicity, and community groups.
Community information sources – These are sources new teachers need to know in order to get to know the community.
Community groups – a number of these groups generally show concern for education and often sponsor programs with education connections. Rotary, Kiwanis, and Lions clubs often sponsor projects that focus on the welfare of school children. There are national organizations with local branches that promote better citizenship and community development.
Community-curriculum connections – Schools and teachers of all kinds are using these connections to link classroom learning experiences to resources and concerns of students' communities. Some examples:
Service learning – a concept developed in the 1990's when an interest emerged in developing students' sense of responsibility toward their communities. Service learning combines the active participation of students in service projects aimed at responding to the needs of the school's community with the development of academic and social skills. Central to service learning are the goals of promoting students' self-esteem, developing higher-order thinking skills and problem solving, making use of students' multiple talents and abilities, and providing authentic learning experiences.
Code of ethics – Standards and expectations for the Texas Teacher. This Code of Ethics and Standard Practices provides the framework for ethical conduct on the part of Texas teachers.
Site-based decision making – With the principal as the instruction leader for the campus, it is the responsibility of the principal to ensure that the state-mandated site-based decision making committee and procedures instituted. The committee is made up of a prescribed number of teachers, parents, and community members. Teacher representatives are elected by their colleagues, but all teachers have the opportunity and professional responsibility to provide input or feedback for the committee's consideration. The committee's major tasks include: identification of goals for the school year, development of plans for accomplishing those goals including staff development, input on scheduling and student assignment, and evaluation of the results of any actions that may be taken. This committee often meets outside the regular school day, as do other campus and district committees to which teachers may be assigned or elected. Teachers in Texas have opportunity and the obligation for input on the important decisions that impact the local campus through the site-based decision-making process. The purpose of this process is to allow shared decision making at the campus level for decisions that impact the campus.
Compensatory education programs - Program for students with special needs. These programs provide services for academic assistance and are designed to meet the needs of at-risk students. At-risk students are those who are performing well below their grade level or meet any one of several criteria, usually associated with below-average academic performance that places the student at risk of dropping out of school. Additional funding, normally from the federal level is provided for these programs, and eligible students may be served in a wide variety of settings dependent upon the district's or school's program design.
State Board of Education (SBOE) – is a statewide policy board that has the responsibility of overseeing the TEA, among other duties. The board is a 15 member body elected for six-year terms, and each member represents one of fifteen geographic regions of the state. The chair of the board is appointed from the membership of the SBOE by the governor.
State Board for Educator Certification (SBEC) – a state agency with a 15 member board responsible for the oversight of all aspects of public school educator certification, continuing education, and standards of conduct. The overall guiding principle of the board is set out in its vision statement found on the SBEC website, which states, “The board is guided by the philosophy that educators will create higher standards for preparation, practice, and conduct than others outside the profession, and that educators will rigorously uphold these standards.” The board oversees the implementation of certification rules and is the agency to which a teacher applies for certification. The SBEC also governs all aspects of the ExCET and sets rules for teacher education programs in the state.
Commissioner of Education- The management of the TEA rests with this person, who is appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Texas Senate.
Texas Education Agency (TEA)- The state legislature has established school districts and a central education authority, TEA, to organize and administer the educational programs in the state.
Local school board- They are responsible for the oversight of the operations of the schools in the community in Texas . They are elected and the 3-9 members depending on the size of the school district are called trustees.
Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS)- The state-mandated curriculum, the TEKS, is for each grade level and content area. This is a statewide content guide of essential information that all students should achieve.
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS)- The statewide assessment program, TAAS, is aligned with the TEKS and is used to ensure district and campus accountability based on student performance on the test. The TAAS is a criterion-referenced evaluation instrument that assesses competencies in reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies.
Public Law 94-142- The Education for All Handicapped Children Act passed in 1975.
Section 504- (of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973) This law is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability and requires public entities that receive federal funds to provide qualified individuals with disabilities special program services.
Buckley Amendment (confidentiality)- This gives students and their parents access to student records and restricts disclosure of record content.
Inclusion/mainstreaming- A philosophy and practice that allows special education students to be included, as much as possible, in the regular educational environment.
Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) Committee- This is a meeting which must be held within 30 days after the assessment results are available to review the assessment data, determine the eligibility of the student, determine the appropriate placement and services to be provided, and develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for the student. When a student is suspected of having a disability an initial evaluation is made of the student following referral. When assessment results are available the district or campus must hold an Admission Review, and Dismissal Committee (ARD) meeting within 30 days to review the assessment data, determine the eligibility go the student, determine the appropriate placement and services to be provided, and develop an IEP for the student. The ARD committee includes representatives from the campus or district administration, assessment personnel, regular education teachers, special education teachers, the parent(s) of the student, if age appropriate, and others who may be invited. The ARD meets at least once per year to review the student's progress and update the IEP and also meets whenever a student is being considered for dismissal from special education. P. 380-381
Individualized Education Program (IEP)- A comprehensive plan for the special education student that includes the instructional objectives, the identification of services needed to achieve the objectives, any modifications required, and other legally required components. P, 381
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)- Students eligible for special education services should be educated in the least restrictive environment possible. The placement of students is determined by the ARD committee, and inclusion or mainstreaming is encouraged whenever deemed appropriate. P. 381
Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS)- The teacher's skill and knowledge that contributes to student achievement is the primary component for the teacher appraisal system currently in place. The Professional Development Appraisal System (PDAS), involves assessing teachers in a variety of areas, such as successful student participation in the learning process, evaluation of student progress, management of student discipline, and professional development. The PDAS focus on the teacher's reflective practice, goal setting, and professional development. The local district is required to provide an orientation to the system for teachers new to the district. P. 375
Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language (ESL)- Programs designed to meet the special needs of students whose home or native language is not English. The process for identifying eligible students begins at the time of enrollment. The parent or student must complete a Home Language Survey that reports the language spoken most often in the home. For any student reporting a language other than English, an oral proficiency examination is administered. Students who are determined to be limited English proficient (LEP) are referred to the Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC) for placement and scheduling. P. 382
Gifted and Talented (GT) Education- Students may be referred for screening for this program by parents, teachers, other educators, or by the students themselves. The criteria for eligibility varies by school district, but the process includes both objective and subjective measures. Subjective measures may include checklists, rating forms, and interviews. Objective measures may include intelligence tests, achievement tests, and aptitude tests. Students placed in GT programs are reviewed annually for continuance or exiting from the program. Programs for students identified as gifted and talented are required by Texas las for all schools in grades K-12. P. 382
Sexual Harassment -A form of sexual discrimination that is in violation of federal and state laws. Teachers should be cautious to avoid any physical, inappropriate contact with students. A related guideline is that teachers should not be alone with students in a closed room (P. 379). Title IX -Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, requires gender equality in all areas of the school's operations. A district or school that receives federal funds is subject to this law and may not segregate courses or activities by gender and generally may not treat males and females differently. P. 378-379
Child abuse reporting requirements -In Texas , teachers, nurses, and other “professional” educators are required to report child abuse or neglect to a child protective agency or law enforcement agency within 48 hours of first suspecting the child has been or may be abused or neglected. P. 383
Active learning--learners are actively engaged in the learning process through reading, writing, discussing, and problem solving rather than listening to lectures
Age appropriate--activities are appropriate for a student's age rather than academic developmental level only
Agent (agency)--ability to control thought content and thinking processes
At-risk--describes students in danger of failure
Autonomy--independence
Cognitive motivation theory--the idea that learned self-beliefs, goals, expectations, and feelings are factors that influence motivation and performance
Conceptual understanding--understanding deeper than rote memorization, understanding the rationale behind a concept
Extracurricular activities--activities that are not graded and do not provide extrinsic motivation
Facilitate, facilitator, facilitation--guides learning through realness or genuineness, valuing the learners, and empathetic understanding
High interest--something that students don't have to be motivated to find appealing
Higher-order thinking--requires active engagement in the thought process, thinking at deeper levels than memorizing and regurgitating
Learner-centered--curricula focused on students (learners) and their accomplishments not the teacher
Lifelong learning--continuing to pursue knowledge after formal education is complete
Locus of control:
Behaviorist Theory: learning consists of stimulus-response events. The learners response is either strengthened or weakened through a positive or negative reward.
Cognitive interactive theory: emphasizes the construction of meaning through both information gained from print and prior knowledge and prior learning experiences.
Constructive theory: a learner builds his or her own learning through interaction with the environment. The learner is actively constructing, rather than passively receiving, knowledge.
Social Cognitive theory: social interactions are a key part of the learning process. A responsive classroom environment that supports active learning depends upon the strong interactions and transactions among teacher, student, and materials.
Prior learning experiences: What students have learned at a previous time.
Schemata: background knowledge about their world and about how it works.
Modality preferences: The way in which a student prefers to receive input.
Modality adeptness: The modality (sensory input) in which a student learns the best, despite his or her sensory reception preference.
Interpsychological : this term represents cultural development of children that appears between people. This category of cultural development is first to occur.
Intrapsychological : this category of cultural development follows the interpsychological category, and appears within the child, which is the second plane.
Learning styles: how, when, where, and with what a person learns best.
Teaching styles: a teachers choice of emphasis, instruction, interactions/ways of communicating, and classroom mannerisms make up a style of teaching.
Multiple intelligences: capacities that reside inside a person; these include verbal—linguistic, logical—mathematical, intrapersonal, visual—spatial, musical—rhythmic, bodily—kinesthetic, interpersonal, and naturalist.
Scaffolding: help given to learners from adults or more advanced peers through structure, clues, reminders, help remembering details or steps, encouragement to keep trying, and so forth.
Transactional theory: comprehension is a powerful relationship between the reader and the text whereby the reader constructs a highly personal or idiosyncratic meaning.
Metacognition : an important cognitive operation that includes the understanding and monitoring of ones own thinking.
Self-monitoring: independent learning where learners can, on their own, select those strategies that will help them go forward.
Strategies: a careful plan or method.
Zone of proximal development: the time in a learners development when a task can be mastered—if the learner is provided with the help and support from adults and more advanced peers.